Requirements for building materials

General information and classification of building materials

Construction materials and products

Construction Basics

Construction materials - ϶ᴛᴏ natural and artificial materials and products used in the construction and repair of buildings and structures. Various conditions The operation and purpose of buildings and structures and their structures determine various requirements for building materials, as well as their wide range. Historically, traditional natural materials were used in the construction of buildings and structures - stone and wood, as well as ceramics. With the development of industry, iron, steel and its alloys, concrete and reinforced concrete (monolithic or prefabricated), aluminum and its alloys, etc. appeared and became widespread in the construction industry. In the 20th century, polymeric materials (plastics) and composite materials or composites.

For rational use building materials, it is extremely important to know their properties, methods of production, storage and transportation rules, working conditions in structures.

Construction materials and products are classified according to various criteria.

The most common is the classification of materials by purpose and technological characteristics, as well as by chemical composition. The main classification groups are shown in the figure.

Based on the degree of readiness, a distinction is made between building materials and building products. Construction materials called natural stone, wood, metals, cement, concrete, brick, sand, mortars etc. K construction products include prefabricated reinforced concrete structures, window and door blocks, sanitary products, etc.

Based on their origin, building materials are divided into natural And artificial.

Natural materials – wood, natural stone materials, peat, natural bitumen and asphalt, etc. They are obtained from natural raw materials as a result of simple processing without changing their original structure and chemical composition. TO artificial materials include brick, cement, reinforced concrete, glass, etc. These materials are produced using deeper special technological processing of natural and artificial raw materials, industrial and agricultural by-products.

Figure - Classification of building materials

According to their intended purpose, based on the working conditions in buildings and structures, building materials are divided into the following groups:

· structural building materials used in load-bearing structural elements that receive and transmit loads;

· thermal insulation designed to ensure the required thermal conditions of the premises;

· acoustic, ᴛ.ᴇ. sound-absorbing and sound-proofing;

· waterproofing and roofing, serving to protect elements of buildings and structures from exposure to water or water vapor;

· sealing, for waterproofing joints in prefabricated structures;

· finishing, designed to improve decorative qualities, as well as protect structures from external influences;

· special purpose, for example, fireproof, acid-resistant, for protection against radioactive radiation, etc.

Some materials, such as wood, cement, concrete, etc., are not clearly classified into any of the listed groups. Such materials are called materials general purpose. For example, concrete is mainly used as construction material, however, some types of concrete can perform thermal insulation functions or serve as special-purpose materials.

Based on technological characteristics, materials obtained are distinguished:

Sintering – ceramics, expanded clay, cement;

Melting – glass, metals, stone casting;

Monopolization with the help binders– concrete, mortars;

Mechanical processing of natural raw materials - natural stone, wood products.

Taking into account the dependence of the chemical composition, natural and artificial building materials are usually divided into the following groups:

Organic – wood, bitumen, plastics, etc.

Mineral – natural stone, concrete, ceramics, etc.

Metal – steel, non-ferrous metals, various alloys.

Important characteristic building materials is their fire danger. In accordance with Federal law RF No. 123-FZ " Technical regulations about the requirements fire safety"The fire hazard of building materials is characterized by the following properties:

Flammability;

Flammability;

The ability to spread flame over a surface;

Smoke generating ability;

Toxicity of combustion products.

By flammability building materials are divided into combustible and non-combustible.

Low flammable;

Moderately flammable;

Normally flammable;

Highly flammable.

By flammability combustible building materials are divided into the following groups:

Flammable;

Moderately flammable;

Highly flammable.

By flame propagation speed Based on their surface, combustible building materials are divided into the following groups:

Non-proliferating;

Low spreading;

Moderately spreading;

Highly spreading.

By smoke generating ability combustible building materials are divided into the following groups:

With low smoke-generating ability;

With moderate smoke-generating ability;

With high smoke-generating ability.

By toxicity of combustion products combustible building materials are divided into the following groups:

Low hazard;

Moderately dangerous;

Highly dangerous;

Extremely dangerous.

Depending on the chemical composition, building materials are usually divided into:

The requirements for building materials are determined by the purpose of the structure, as well as the conditions in which it must work.

The structural elements of buildings are influenced by various operational factors (atmospheric influences, static and dynamic loads, biological influences, etc.) given in the table.

Materials are subject to requirements for strength and ability to resist various influences (mechanical, physical, chemical and electrochemical influences of the external environment).

Table ___ - Requirements for materials of building structures

Design	Operational Factors	Requirements for construction material
External Roof	Atmospheric influences, changes in temperature and humidity, static and dynamic loads, biological influences	Water resistance, density, frost resistance, chemical resistance, thermal insulation properties, low dead weight
Walls	Atmospheric influences, differences in temperature and humidity outside and inside, significant static and dynamic loads	The same, as well as good strength characteristics
Foundation	The same, as well as periodic moistening, freezing and thawing in a water-saturated state, the action groundwater, load	Strength, water and frost resistance, corrosion resistance
Domestic Frame and load-bearing walls, partitions	Static and dynamic loads, acoustic	High strength with the lowest dead weight possible, low sound conductivity
Floors	Static and dynamic loads, changes in temperature and humidity, acoustic	Strength, sound and heat insulating properties, water resistance
Floors	Impacts, abrasion, static and dynamic loads	Wear resistance, strength, corrosion resistance

Chapter I. Classification and requirements for building materials

§ 1. Classification of building materials

Residential, public and industrial buildings are structures designed to accommodate people and various equipment and protect them from environmental influences. All buildings consist of parts that are identical in purpose:

the foundation that serves as the foundation of the building and transfers the load from the entire building to the ground;

frame - a supporting structure on which the building's enclosing elements are installed; the frame perceives and redistributes loads and transfers them to the foundation;

enclosing structures that isolate the internal volume of the building from the influence of the external environment or separate individual parts of the internal volume from each other; Enclosing structures include walls, floors and roofs, and in low-rise buildings, walls and floors often serve as a frame.

Since ancient times, residential and religious buildings were erected from natural materials - stone and wood, and all parts of the building were made from them: foundation, walls, roofing. This versatility of the material had significant drawbacks. Construction stone buildings it was labor intensive; stone walls To maintain normal thermal conditions in the building, they had to be made very thick (up to 1 m or more), since natural stone is a good conductor of heat. For the installation of floors and roofs, many columns were installed or heavy ones were made stone vaults, since the strength of the stone is not enough to cover large spans. The stone buildings, however, had one positive quality- durability. Less labor intensive, but short-lived wooden buildings often destroyed by fires.

With the development of industry, new building materials with different purposes appeared: for roofing - sheet iron, later - rolled materials and asbestos cement; For load-bearing structures- rolled steel and high strength concrete; for thermal insulation - fiberboard, mineral wool, etc.

Specialization and industrial production building materials, semi-finished products and products have radically changed the nature of construction. Materials, and then products made from them, began to arrive at construction sites almost ready-made; building structures became lighter and more efficient (for example, they were better protected from heat loss, from exposure to moisture, etc.). At the beginning of the 20th century. began factory production building structures (metal trusses, reinforced concrete columns), but only in the 50s, for the first time in the world, our country began to build prefabricated buildings from ready-made elements.

The modern industry of building materials and products produces a large number of finished building parts and materials for various purposes, For example: ceramic tiles for floors, for internal lining, facade, carpet mosaic; roofing felt and glassine for roofing, insulation and waterproofing for waterproofing. To make it easier to navigate this variety of building materials and products, they are classified. Most widespread received classifications according to purpose and technological characteristics.

By purpose materials are divided into the following groups:

structural, which perceive and transmit loads in building structures;

thermal insulation, the main purpose of which is to minimize the transfer of heat through the building structure and thereby ensure the necessary thermal conditions of the room at minimum costs energy;

acoustic (sound-absorbing and sound-proofing) - to reduce the level of “noise pollution” in the room;

waterproofing and roofing - to create waterproof layers on roofs, underground structures and other structures that need to be protected from exposure to water or water vapor;

sealing - for sealing joints in prefabricated structures;

finishing - to improve the decorative qualities of building structures, as well as to protect structural, thermal insulation and other materials from external influences;

for special purposes (for example, fire-resistant or acid-resistant), used in the construction of special structures.

A number of materials (for example, cement, lime, wood) cannot be classified into any one group, since they are used both in their pure form and as raw materials for the production of other building materials and products - these are the so-called general-purpose materials. The difficulty of classifying building materials by purpose is that the same materials can be classified as different groups. For example, concrete is mainly used as a structural material, but some of its types have a completely different purpose: especially lightweight concrete - thermal insulation materials; extra-heavy concrete - special-purpose materials used for protection against radioactive radiation.

The basis of the classification by technology the type of raw material from which the material is obtained and the manufacturing method are determined. These two factors largely determine the properties of the material and, accordingly, its scope of application. Based on the manufacturing method, a distinction is made between materials produced by sintering (ceramics, cement), melting (glass, metals), monolithication using binders (concrete, mortars) and mechanical processing of natural raw materials (natural stone, wood materials). For a deeper understanding of the properties of materials, which depend mainly on the type of raw material and the method of its processing, the “Materials Science” course is based on classification according to technological characteristics and only in in some cases groups of materials according to their intended purpose are considered.

Premises for livestock farms and complexes can be varied in their design, arrangement and equipment. However, all of them must meet general zoohygienic requirements, and above all, ensure optimal microclimate conditions. This largely depends on the hygienic properties of building materials and the heat-insulating qualities of external fences.

Requirements for building materials.

In the zoohygienic assessment of building materials, their thermal conductivity, heat capacity, hygroscopicity, vapor and air permeability are essential.

Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to transfer heat from a more heated side to a less heated one. The thermal conductivity of each material is characterized by a thermal conductivity coefficient. It is equal to the amount of heat (in kilocalories) that passes through 1 m 2 of material 1 m thick within 1 hour at a temperature difference of 1 ° C on opposite surfaces. The thermal conductivity coefficient decreases with increasing porosity of the material and increases with increasing its volumetric mass. At the same time, the thermal conductivity of the same material also depends on the degree of its humidity; the higher it is, the greater the thermal conductivity.

Construction materials for external fencing with a low thermal conductivity coefficient more reliably ensure the optimal thermal state of the air in livestock buildings. For comparison: the thermal conductivity coefficient of heavy concrete with a volumetric mass of 600 kg/m 3 is 0.21, and a pine plate of the same volumetric mass is 0.15. Therefore, the second material is preferable.

Heat capacity is an important hygienic property of the material. Heat capacity is the amount of heat absorbed by a body when heated by 1 °C. The heat absorption coefficient shows the ability of a material to absorb heat when the temperature on its surface fluctuates. Building construction with a high coefficient of heat absorption, they absorb a large amount of heat from the surface of the animal’s body, as is, for example, the case when the animal’s body comes into contact with the surface of a concrete floor.

Hygroscopicity is the property of a material to absorb and retain water and water vapor.

The vapor permeability of a material is measured by the mass (in grams) of water vapor passing through a material with an area of ​​1 m2 and a thickness of 1 m within 1 hour with a difference in the elasticity of water vapor at opposite surfaces of 1 mm of mercury. When choosing a material for building enclosing structures, be sure to take into account its vapor permeability, since moisture retention in the material is the main reason for dampness of walls and coverings.

The air permeability of the material contributes to higher heat-shielding properties. A significant temperature gradient between the indoor air of livestock buildings and the enclosing structures causes a violation of the animal body’s thermal regulation and condensation on the inner surface of the enclosures. It has been experimentally established that the temperature gradient between the room air temperature and the surface temperature of animal enclosures should be within 3 °C.

To preserve heat in livestock buildings and prevent condensation on the inner surface of fences, it is necessary to use building materials with low volumetric mass, low thermal conductivity, increased specific heat capacity, low heat absorption coefficient, average vapor and air permeability.

It is advisable to have a thermal conductivity coefficient of fencing for livestock buildings no higher than 0.8-1. Calculations show that reducing the thermal conductivity coefficient of walls from 1 to 0.6 and coatings from 0.7 to 0.4 makes it possible to reduce heat loss through the building envelope (in cowsheds by 30%, pigsties by 33, poultry houses by 35%) And annual consumption heat (by 38, 27-42 and 14-23%, respectively).

It seems possible to ensure optimal temperature and humidity conditions in livestock buildings only if there is effective thermal protection of the enclosing structures. Reliable thermal insulation of enclosing structures of livestock and poultry buildings in transitional and winter period s makes it possible to rationally use the biological heat of animals, and in summer time protect them from high external temperatures.

Building materials for enclosing structures must have a sufficient coefficient thermal resistance. Thus, in areas with stable low temperatures (estimated winter temperature - 25-30 ° C), it is necessary to use building materials with a thermal resistance coefficient of 2-2.5 for wall enclosing structures. Currently, in many livestock buildings, the design provides for thermal resistance parameters of walls at the level of 0.8-1.1 and coatings at 1.3-1.4. Livestock farms and complexes are built using the following industrial enclosing structures: two-layer wall panels PSL, SPSL made of lightweight concrete (expanded clay concrete, expanded clay foam concrete, agloporite concrete, wood concrete), three-layer reinforced concrete wall panels PS; lightweight reinforced concrete slabs PR, SPR, SPI; complex reinforced concrete slabs for KP covering; lightweight multilayer asbestos-cement corrugated sheets(OV-5.5; OV-6; OV-7.5; SK-40; VU-2).

The types of enclosing structures noted above have fairly high heat-protective properties: the thermal resistance coefficients of the walls, depending on the parameters of the internal and external air, are: for barns - 1.1-1.3, for pigsties - 1.3-1.5, poultry houses - 1 .5-3.9; coatings respectively 2-2.2; 2.2-2.5 and 1.5-3.2.

Mineral wool, glass wool, mesh perlite, stronite (vermiculite), PSBS polystyrene foam, FRP phenolic-resol foam and other new effective materials are used as thermal insulation materials in multi-layer enclosing structures.

The use of plastics, extruded asbestos-cement panels and slabs, fiberglass, aluminum and other building materials as thermal insulation is promising. They have low thermal conductivity, are durable, waterproof, resistant to chemical, physical and bacteriological influences, and their service life is quite long.

It should be borne in mind that improving the heat-protective properties of enclosing structures requires additional costs, therefore, in each specific case, the feasibility of their use must be economically justified. The practice of operating livestock farms and complexes shows that it is economically justified to use building materials with increased thermal insulation properties not only for areas with low winter design temperatures, but also for the southern regions of the country, in order to prevent the harmful effects of high temperatures on the animal body.

Requirements to individual elements building. Foundation. This is the underground part of the building, which is the support of all load-bearing structures of the building. The foundation of the building must withstand the destructive effects of moisture and low temperatures and be strong, stable and durable. The foundations are made continuous (ribbon) along the perimeter of all walls or discontinuous in the form of individual pillars. The minimum height of the base (the upper part of the foundation rising above the ground) is 20-30 cm. To protect the walls from moisture on the inner surface, a vapor barrier layer of waterproof film coatings (roof felt, roofing felt) is placed between them and the base.

Walls. They must be durable, dry, and not freeze in winter. The walls of livestock and poultry buildings are erected from materials that have low thermal conductivity and are sufficiently porous, ensuring good air permeability (concrete, expanded clay concrete, brick, iron concrete panels). The best in terms of thermal engineering are lightweight or large-porous concrete (cellular concrete). By design, the panels are single-layer - made of lightweight and cellular concrete, two-layer - from a reinforced concrete slab and insulation, three-layer - from two reinforced concrete slabs and the insulation located between them.

In areas rich in forests, walls are built from wood. During construction, local building materials should also be widely used - adobe, reeds, slag concrete, shell rock, etc.

The walls must be smooth, without cracks, plastered, periodically they must be cleaned of dust and whitewashed.

Window. Their design should be given special attention. Windows provide natural light to the premises, but through them it is lost significant amount heat. In strong winds, heat loss increases 2-3 times. Windows with double frames are made in maternity wards and dispensaries, calf barns, pigsties, queen cells, as well as in all rooms in climatic areas with harsh winter climate, which reduces heat loss by 70% and improves room illumination by reducing the formation of ice on glass. Reduce the labor intensity of manufacturing and installation window openings The use of window frames in the form of panels made of translucent polyester fiberglass allows almost 3 times. Window glass must be periodically cleaned of dirt and dust.

Ceilings. They separate the room from the roof and greatly contribute to the creation of optimal temperature and humidity conditions. In winter, ceilings prevent heat transfer through the roof, and in summer, during extreme heat, they protect rooms from heating up.

Ceilings must be well insulated, dry, level, strong enough and easy to disinfect. They are made from materials with low thermal conductivity and high moisture capacity. The best are wooden ceilings. Ceilings made of concrete and reinforced concrete slabs and bricks do not meet zoohygienic requirements, since they condense water vapor and require significant insulation. The design of ceilings may be different. In livestock buildings built in climatic regions with an estimated winter temperature below - 25 °C, horizontal ceilings are used. They also work in warmer climates.

Floors. This element of livestock premises plays exclusively important role in building optimal microclimate, increasing the productivity of animals, strengthening their health. Floors must meet the following requirements: be warm, dry, durable, solid, elastic, waterproof, non-slip, comfortable effective disinfection resistant to disinfectants. Floors are laid directly on compacted soil through a moisture-proofing layer.

The humidity conditions of the room largely depend on the waterproofness of the floor. Through permeable floors, the soil is moistened and heat loss increases. The floor is raised above ground level by 15-20 cm. Floor insulation is important in reducing heat loss in a building, since heat loss through the floor accounts for 30-40% of all heat loss in the room. The heat absorption coefficient of floors should not exceed 10-12; if it is higher, then not only the heat loss of the room increases, but also a lot of physiological heat is spent on heating the floor, which leads to hypothermia of the body and illness in animals.

One of the main requirements for floors is their durability, which depends primarily on the material. Floors can be made of adobe, clay-crushed stone, wood, brick, concrete, and asphalt.

Most fully meet all zootechnical, technological and veterinary requirements wooden floors, but they quickly become unusable and are destroyed in cowsheds in 2-3 years, and in pigsties in 2 years. It is advisable to make adobe floors in stalls of stables, sheepfolds, cowsheds (when animals are kept loose), in poultry houses (when kept on deep permanent litter). Concrete floors are very durable, easy to disinfect, but are of little use due to their high thermal conductivity. Asphalt floors are cold and quickly become unusable.

Recently, new structures have been widely used - from bituminized and ceramic slabs, polymer concrete, expanded clay concrete, rubber, steel, cast iron, reinforced concrete, plastic, galvanized metal rod, agglomeric concrete. Aglopory concrete floors are most effective in barns and pigsties. In terms of heat-insulating properties and durability, they are superior to wooden floors.

One of the important requirements of floors is their cleanliness. To maintain cleanliness, floors are made of lattice or slatted floors for animals, and mesh or slatted floors for poultry. On such floors, manure (litter) quickly falls through or is trampled down onto transport mechanisms for its removal. The slope of the floor for drainage of urine and water should not exceed 1-2 cm per linear meter floor.

Roofs and roofing. The construction of roofs and roofing is given great attention, since a significant part of the heat of the room is lost through them. For roofing, materials from the latest to very old are used - iron, slate, tiles, roofing felt, wood chips, reeds. When installing a roof, it is necessary to take into account important requirement- it must withstand the weight of the snow cover.

Roof shapes or structures can be different: single, double and hipped. Not only ventilation shafts are installed in the roofs, but also “lanterns” in large rooms in order to ensure a sufficient and uniform supply of natural light.

When configuring livestock buildings like the letters G, P, T, the roof must be complex, that is, multi-slope. In areas with warm, temperate and moderately cold climates, it is advisable to build livestock buildings with a combined roof without attics. It is recommended to use glass wool, polystyrene, polystyrene foam, fiberboard and other heat-insulating materials with a layer of 12-18 cm as insulation. For combined roofing, fire-resistant materials are used: asbestos-cement corrugated slabs, rolled, reinforced glass materials.

Gates, doors, vestibules. External gates serve not only for the entry and exit of animals, delivery of feed, removal of manure, etc., but are also external fences of premises through which heat is lost. Therefore, both gates and doors must be tight, insulated and well-fitted. The gates are equipped with vestibules that protect the premises from the penetration of cold air in winter. In rooms divided into sections, it is recommended to have at least one exit from each section. The size of the gate should ensure the quick exit of animals in case of fire and allow free entry of machines for distributing feed.

Gates are made double-leaf, single-leaf doors with opening outwards or in the direction of the main movement. From the side of the room, the threshold is made at the same level with the floor; from the outside, the threshold is raised by 5-8 cm to prevent the flow of rain and melt water.

The minimum dimensions of gates in premises for cattle, pigs, sheep and poultry: width - 2.1 m, height - 1.8 m; in stables: width - 2.1 m, height - 2.4 m. Dimensions of doors for the passage and exit of animals inside the gates for cattle: width - at least 1 m, height - 1.8 m; for horses: width - 1.2 m; height - 2.4 m; for pigs: width - 1 m; for sheep - width 0.8 m.

Requirements for housing layout and building materials

One of the most important problems large city is the lack of housing. Housing ranks 3rd in terms of its impact on human health (after nutrition and working conditions). Housing is an artificially created human habitat, which reduces the pressure of nature on human survival and restores his strength for industrial, social and cultural life in society.

The sanitary and hygienic condition of housing is determined by 6 indicators:

the orientation of windows to the cardinal directions, which determines the insolation of the premises;

heat and air insulating properties of enclosing structures (wood, concrete, etc.);

quality of plumbing fixtures and kitchen equipment(furnaces, heating batteries etc.);

materials from which the apartment is decorated inside;

air cube - the amount of air per 1 person: must be at least 40 m 3, which allows limiting the accumulation of human metabolic products and emissions of wall and finishing materials in the room;

the height of the premises, which is important for air exchange, because pollution concentrates under the ceiling

Requirements for housing layout

Requirements for housing layout have been determined sanitary rules"Residential buildings".

Plot for a dwelling, it should be located in a sunlit and ventilated area, remote from sources of noise and pollution atmospheric air. WITH hygienic from the point of view, the home should be dry, warm, light, spacious, clean, with constantly changing air, provide silence, peace, relaxation, have a beautiful design, and the correct orientation of the building. In cold climates there must be a home. wind- and heat-protective, and in hot weather - protected from overheating. The main planning cell in a sectional house is residential section is a group of apartments united by one staircase. There are hotel-type houses, hostels, hotels, and temporary housing.

The main element of a residential building is the apartment. Layout apartments must provide for the creation optimal conditions for insolation, especially in bedrooms, through ventilation, sound insulation and sufficient area. Big hygienic value have the dimensions of the rooms. Minimum height is determined by the average height of a person (1.7 m) plus 1 m, i.e. 2.7 m.

Living space for 1 person in the Russian Federation it is 18 m2 with a height of 2.7 - 3 m - this area provides the necessary volume of air in the home, and also allows you to place furniture and household items.

Accommodation amenities largely depend on configurations rooms are the ratio of the length to the width of the room: the most favorable ratio is 1:2 or 3:4 - at the same time, furniture is conveniently placed and optimal conditions for lighting are created.

Depth living room should not exceed 6.5 m - this ensures sufficient illumination of the most distant part of the wall. The presence of balconies, verandas, loggias is of great importance - they provide fresh air and also reduce overheating.

The apartment includes the following premises: residential - bedroom, dining room, office and auxiliary - hallway, kitchen, bathroom, toilet, balcony. The apartments are planned to be occupied by one family. The area of ​​the living room should not be less than 8m2.

Floors must be warm, soft, waterproof, and easy to clean.

Stairs should reduce muscle work as much as possible, reduce the load on the heart and respiratory organs. The main elements of a staircase are a flight of steps and a landing. The steps must be at least 15 cm high and no more than 17 cm high, and 27-31 cm wide. Smoking on stairs is prohibited.

Requirements for building materials.

The building materials of the home must correspond to the zone in which the house is being built and meet the following requirements:

have low thermal conductivity;

have good breathability;

be non-hygroscopic and have low sound conductivity;

provide strength;

do not release volatile substances;

do not stimulate the development of microflora or fungal growth;

be accessible for disinfection;

have a color and texture that meets the physiological and aesthetic needs of a person.

Building materials are divided into 2 groups: natural and artificial. Natural materials: wood, granite, basalt, clay. Artificial: brick, thermoblocks, gypsum, lime, asphalt. Special group: plastics – synthetic materials. Their positive properties– small volume by weight, strength, low thermal conductivity, chemical resistance. Negative properties from the hygienic side: they release free monomers - plastic additives (catalysts, hardeners, etc.), which are volatile and toxic; have low thermal protective properties; static electricity accumulates on them.

Control questions

The main environmental and hygienic problems of cities: features of urban air and microclimate, water supply and sanitation.

Environmental protection measures in the city and in the countryside.

Hygienic requirements for the layout of residential premises.

Microclimate of the home - what it consists of and how it affects health

Basic heating systems for residential buildings, their pros and cons.

Types of ventilation according to the method of supplying air to the room. Causes of air pollution in the home – and its impact on health.

How can you use the acquired knowledge on environmental and hygienic problems of cities and housing in educational work with the population?

Methods for determining parameters air environment, natural and artificial lighting in rooms.

Noise and its effect on humans.

The main measures to improve the environment in the city.

Hygienic requirements for housing layout.

Hygienic requirements for building materials.

"Sick Building Syndrome."

Optimal indicators of the microclimate of the home.

Topic No. 16: HYGIENIC REQUIREMENTS FOR TREATMENT AND PREVENTIVE INSTITUTIONS

KNOW:

Hygienic requirements for the planning of health care facilities.

Purpose and arrangement of boxes and half-boxes, emergency departments of hospitals, maternity hospitals, infectious diseases hospitals, ward sections.

Interior decoration.

Standards for the area of ​​wards and their hygienic significance.

Heating, ventilation, lighting of healthcare facilities.

Factors contributing to the occurrence of nosocomial infections.

Hygienic requirements for working conditions of medical personnel.

BE ABLE TO:

Use the acquired knowledge in organizing security and sanitary

epidemiological (anti-epidemic) regime in health care facilities.

The objectives of hospital hygiene are to provide the most favorable conditions for the treatment of patients in health care facilities and optimal working conditions for medical personnel.

Types of healthcare facilities. Hospital development systems: centralized, mixed, block and decentralized.

The territory of the hospital, its layout

Requirements to internal layout hospitals.

Sanitary and hygienic regime in health care facilities.

Personal hygiene of hospital staff.

The objectives of hospital hygiene are to provide the most favorable conditions for the treatment of patients in health care facilities and optimal working conditions for medical personnel

Hospital hygiene is a section of general hygiene that develops standards and rules aimed at ensuring the most favorable conditions for the treatment of patients in health care facilities and optimal working conditions for medical staff.

The first hospitals in Russia were built under Peter the Great - in St. Petersburg, 1702. These were corridor-barracks departments for 100-200 people, consisting of a series of rooms for 30-40 people, united by a passage in the middle and with stove heating.

Types of healthcare facilities. Hospital development systems: centralized, mixed, block and decentralized

In the Russian Federation, there are the following treatment and preventive institutions: hospitals, clinics, dispensaries, medical units, first aid stations, health centers, maternity hospitals, orphanages, sanatorium and resort institutions, ambulance institutions, sanitary and epidemiological institutions; blood transfusion stations, etc. But the main health care facility is hospital(hospital, hospital). The hospital is designed to provide inpatient care to the population. Hospitals can be designed in conjunction with a clinic, emergency station medical care, maternity hospital, etc.

Depending on the service area, multidisciplinary hospitals are divided into: district, district, central district (CRH), city and regional (regional). Independent types of hospitals are emergency hospitals, children's hospitals, rehabilitation treatment(rehabilitation). To provide inpatient care of a certain profile, there are specialized hospitals: infectious diseases, tuberculosis, psychiatric, maternity hospitals, etc.

The construction and reconstruction of hospitals is carried out in accordance with the sanitary rules “Urban Planning. Planning and development of cities, towns and rural settlements" (1989) and "Hygienic requirements for the placement, design, equipment and operation of hospitals, maternity hospitals and other medical hospitals"(2003).

In modern hospital construction in Russia, 4 types of architectural and planning solutions are designed: pavilion, centralized, block and mixed systems.

Pavilion is a decentralized system, when hospital departments of various profiles are located in separate buildings. pros: this system allows for good isolation of departments, creates conditions for patients to stay in the fresh air and maintain a medical and protective regime. This is how infectious, psychiatric and tuberculosis departments are located.

Centralized system– with it, all medical, treatment-diagnostic and auxiliary departments are combined in one building. Usually these are somatic departments - therapeutic, surgical, neurological. Pros: such a system allows convenient interconnection of departments, shortens the routes of movement of patients and personnel during therapeutic and diagnostic procedures (X-ray, physiotherapy, therapeutic exercises, etc.), fast delivery food from the kitchen to the wards.

Block system- the hospital consists of separate buildings, but they are united in the center.

Mixed system– when there is a main building and a number of auxiliary separate ones: infectious diseases, children's and other departments, a kitchen, a pathology building, a clinic and functional departments.

The territory of the hospital, its layout

Hygienic requirements for the planning of the territory of health care facilities: formulated in “Hygienic requirements for the placement, design, equipment and operation of hospitals, maternity hospitals and other medical hospitals” (2003).

Plot hospitals should be removed from industrial enterprises and other sources of noise and air pollution - they should be located on the windward side. Specialized hospitals with 1000 beds are located in the suburban area, 1 km from the residential area (regular hospitals - 50 m). The terrain should be calm, with a slight slope for precipitation drainage, dry soil and a groundwater level of at least 0.5 m. Land area depends on the building system and the number of beds: the norm is 80-400 m 2 per bed. The building density of the site should not exceed 15% of the total territory. Under green spaces 60% of the area is allocated, the norm is 25 m2 per bed. Along the perimeter of the site, green spaces - trees / bushes - should be planted in 2 rows. All access roads and pedestrian crossings must be paved.

The hospital site must be provided 4 zones: an area of ​​medical buildings with a garden, a clinic, a pathological building and a utility yard. The zones must be separated by protective strips of green space of at least 15 m. The pathology building and the maintenance yard must have a separate exit from the other side of the street. On the territory of the infectious diseases hospital there are “dirty” and “clean” zones, isolated from each other by a strip of prickly green spaces, and at the exit from the “dirty” half there should be an asphalt area for disinfecting vehicles.

Cleaning territory must be carried out daily. Garbage bins are equipped with tight lids and are located on asphalt areas, at least 25 m from the buildings. Garbage and food waste are removed daily and garbage receptacles are disinfected.

Requirements for the internal layout of a hospital

Best orientation hospital wards in middle latitudes - from E to W, infectious diseases departments - to S, SE, E; operating rooms, intensive care and delivery rooms - in the N, NE, NW; the rest - as necessary.

Both the hospital itself and the organizational system in it contribute to the duration of recovery of patients. hospital regime. In a modern hospital, there are 10 main structural divisions: 1) admission department and patient discharge room, 2) ward departments, 3) treatment and diagnostic departments: operating unit, functional diagnostics department, X-ray, intensive care unit, 4) laboratories, 5) central sterilization department department, 6) pharmacy, 7) food preparation service, 8) pathology department, 9) administration service and 10) laundry.

Reception department serves for registration, medical examination, examination, sanitary treatment of incoming patients and providing them emergency care. The layout of the emergency department should include the principle of flow of movement of incoming and outgoing patients. The main premises of the reception department: a waiting room with a registration desk, a wardrobe, a help desk, an examination room, an office for the doctor on duty, rooms for sanitary treatment (locker room, shower room, dressing room), a manipulation room with a dressing room, boxes and diagnostic rooms for patients with an unclear diagnosis, a bathroom and utility rooms.

In the emergency room obstetric The departments have two examination rooms - for those entering the physiological department and the department of pathology of pregnant women.

IN children's and infectious diseases departments are provided with reception and examination boxes, the number of which depends on the capacity of the hospital: up to 60 beds - 2 boxes, up to 100 - 3, etc. Reception and viewing box is the main room of the children's hospital's emergency department. It includes: an entrance vestibule (external), an examination room, a toilet, a pre-box, which serves as a gateway for personnel to enter from the corridor of the reception department.

Ward section is the basis of the hospital department. It usually has 30 beds for adults or 24 for children under 1 year of age. This is a place where patients stay around the clock, so comfortable conditions must be created in them to promote a speedy recovery. The ward section of the somatic department includes: wards, rooms for day care of patients, a treatment room, a dining room, medical auxiliary and utility rooms: a pantry for clean linen, a room for washing vessels, an enema room. Better wards are 2-4 beds, for seriously ill patients - single beds. Each patient should have 25 m 3 of air. Such an air cube is provided with a floor height of 3.2 -3.5 m and an area per patient of 7-7.5 m2 (children - 6.5 m2) per bed - this is the norm.

The size of the wards depends on the profile and age of the patients: in the wards general type for an adult or child - 9 m2, in 2-bed rooms - 7 and 6 m2, respectively; in burn rooms - 10 m2, intensive care - 13 m2.

Branch is a union of several ward sections. It includes: an office for the head of the department, a senior nurse's room, a resident's room, a nurse's room, and a staff toilet.

In infectious diseases departments there are: full box, half box and boxed wards. Full box(22 m2) - completely isolated from the department, equipped with an external entrance with a vestibule, a bathtub, a toilet, a room with 1 bed, an airlock, where the staff changes into an additional robe, puts on a mask and disinfects their hands. There is a cupboard for dishes and a tank for disinfecting dishes and food waste. To prevent the spread of airborne infection, the box has self-ventilation, in which the exhaust dominates the inflow, and the air channels are isolated from the hospital hood.

Halfbox equipped like a box, but has access through a gateway to the department.

Boxed chambers are available in children's departments, when each bed is separated from the adjacent one by an incomplete glass partition, which prevents reinfection.

Operating unit placed separately from the wards. It includes: operating room, preoperative room, sterilization room, anesthesia room and material room. In modern operating rooms, entry is through a sanitary checkpoint, and for patients - through an airlock. The operating unit must have two isolated impenetrable compartments - septic and antiseptic. Flows in the operating room are divided into 1) “sterile” - for the passage of surgeons and operating nurses and 2) “clean” - for the delivery of the patient, the passage of anesthesiologists and junior medical staff, removal of waste and used linen. They should not cross or touch. The windows of the operating room should be oriented to the North, and the light ratio should be 1:5; there may be an air conditioner or a supply and exhaust hood.

Sanitary and hygienic regime in health care facilities

To prevent nosocomial infections great importance has compliance with hygienic maintenance rules hospital premises and personal hygiene by staff. Let's consider the basic rules for maintaining a sanitary and hygienic regime in health care facilities.

Upon admission to the hospital, patients, depending on their condition, undergo sanitization in the reception department: taking a shower/bath/wet rubbing, cutting nails, examining for lice and, if detected, appropriate hair treatment. After sanitization, patients are given a set of clean underwear and slippers, and bed linen in the room. When patients are discharged, underwear and bed linen are washed.

In the patient's department room there should be individual glass, spoon, toothbrush, towel, soap and can be - toothpaste and a razor.

Hygienic washes– 1 time per week with a note in the medical history.

Hygienic care for seriously ill patients - washing, wiping the skin of the face and parts of the body, rinsing the mouth - carried out after eating and when the body is dirty.

Nursing staff must have a kit replaceable work clothes - robe, cap and shoes.

Before examining each patient and after “dirty procedures,” medical staff must wash their hands by 2-fold soaping.

To maintain cleanliness and prevent infections, wet cleaning– at least 2 times a day using detergents (soap and soda solutions) and disinfectants and using labeled equipment: washing floors, wiping furniture, equipment, doors;

Once every 10 days is carried out spring-cleaning premises - sweep ceilings, walls, wash panels and floors, change bed linen, vacuum clean blankets

Complied with sanitary and anti-epidemic regime in health care facilities: a) toilets and urinals are treated daily with a 0.5% bleach solution; bedpans are disinfected with a 0.2% bleach solution after each use; b) to reduce microbial contamination, bactericidal lamps with indirect irradiation are periodically turned on.

From being in the hospital, patients experience anxiety and dissatisfaction with the hospital environment, which causes their condition to worsen. Therefore, hospitals must comply protective treatment regime , which consists in eliminating unfavorable stimuli and incorporating activities that have a beneficial effect on the patient’s body. Special attention is attached to measures that spare the patient’s psyche: a) it is necessary to remember that a carelessly spoken word can cause excitement and deterioration of the patient’s condition; b) patients tend to read the medical history and may get upset because of this - therefore, it is necessary to streamline the storage of medical histories; c) lengthening physiological sleep is of great importance for rest - daytime sleep is observed, at this time there should be silence in the department, talk quietly; use light signaling; d) personnel must wear soft shoes; e) clean the wards after patients get up; f) the elimination of unpleasant “hospital” odors, tidy maintenance of premises is of no small importance, cozy atmosphere in wards and departments; g) this includes dietary food taking into account the patient’s pathology and h) strict adherence to the daily routine on the part of patients and staff.

The layout of the wards and boxes is designed to prevent nosocomial infections, which infect up to 10% of hospitalized patients, and 2% of them die. Nosocomial infections are abscesses after injections, cystitis and urethritis after catheterization, infectious hepatitis, pustular and fungal diseases. According to the WHO definition, " nosocomial infection- this is any clinically pronounced disease of microbial origin that affects a patient as a result of hospitalization or visiting a health care facility for the purpose of treatment, as well as hospital staff during their activities...” Actually a hospital infection is infectious diseases that occur during or after hospital treatment (in women in labor - mastitis, in newborns - sepsis; a patient was admitted with pneumonia - fell ill with dysentery, hepatitis). The infection can be brought by both patients and staff, and can also be carried by staff from the hospital to their families. The longer a child is treated in a hospital, the more viruses penetrate his body, which is determined by antibodies in the blood, and this increases the child’s hospital stay by an average of 14 days.

Where do the pathogenic staphylococci in the department come from? During examination service personnel carriers are detected - 54% (including nurses - 54%, nurses - 70%, doctors - 42%), among children - 60%, in swabs from objects of the hospital environment in wards for newborns - 8%, in children's department– 12% and surgical – 14%.

The main causes of nosocomial infections:

A) In-hospital causes:

Incomplete diagnosis: a patient is admitted with one diagnosis, despite the fact that he is already sick with another infectious disease (influenza, acute respiratory infection).

Unsatisfactory medical examination of patients upon admission (staphylococcal diseases in the maternity hospital with missed pustules).

Insufficient isolation of patients, especially weakened ones - contacts in general wards, corridors, toilets.

Insufficient monitoring of patients by medical staff: a child with an acute respiratory infection has undiagnosed diarrhea and infects others.

Unsatisfactory intra-hospital sanitary and anti-epidemic regime: poor disinfection in common areas, laundry is not boiled, rooms are unsatisfactorily disinfected after the discharge of women in labor; additional beds are deployed in corridors and non-ward rooms (which is prohibited).

Poor sterilization of syringes and instruments (positive benzidine test for occult blood).

B) Social reasons:

Introduction of a range of new diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, increasing the number of interventions of medical equipment and drugs inside the body.

Expansion of application medicines, suppress the immune system (immunosuppressants).

The habituation of microorganisms to standard antibiotics, which determines the evolution of microbes.

Insufficient socio-economic provision of hospitals: accumulation in one department with incurable diseases of elderly or weakened patients who require not so much treatment as care in a social institution.

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Animal housing is built to be dry, bright, warm in winter and cool in summer. For construction, local, relatively durable and cheap materials with satisfactory heat-shielding properties. In order to retain heat in the premises and prevent moisture condensation, fences should be erected from building materials with low volumetric mass, with a low coefficient of thermal conductivity and heat absorption, with increased heat capacity, with average vapor and air permeability.

The heat transfer of fencing of livestock buildings should not be higher than 0.8 - 1.0 cal/(h*m2*°C), and the coefficient of thermal resistance to heat transfer (L) should not be lower than 2 - 2.5 kcal/(h*m2*°C). Compliance with these requirements allows you to maintain the required air temperature in the premises and prevent condensation of water vapor on the building fences.

Every structural element the building must meet the relevant requirements.

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The foundation of the building bears the weight of the walls, ceilings and roof, protects the walls from subsidence and the penetration of moisture from the soil into them. Between the foundation and the wall an insulating layer of roofing felt, asphalt, greasy cement mortar, tarred birch bark, bitumen. The base of the foundation must be below the soil freezing horizon. Concrete and stones are usually used for the foundation.

Walls should be constructed from materials that retain heat well. About 40% of heat is lost through external walls, so they must have good heat-insulating properties. These requirements are most fully met by dry logs, burnt or sand-lime brick, expanded clay concrete, multilayer concrete panels with insulation made of polystyrene foam, polystyrene and other materials.

Building materials used for the construction of walls must be dry, since damp walls will lose more heat, molds develop on them. The microclimate is especially unsatisfactory with damp walls and poor ventilation.

The walls should be smooth, which makes it easier to keep them clean, and it is more convenient to whitewash and disinfect them.

Ceilings in modern buildings are usually made of reinforced concrete slabs, and rooms with a combined roof are often built. In all cases they must be well insulated. IN attic spaces subject to fire safety measures, it is allowed to store roughage or bedding straw, which significantly improves the thermal insulation properties of the ceiling.

Floors in livestock buildings are made of durable, level, low thermal conductivity, moisture-proof and non-slip material, resistant to disinfectants and aggressive environment premises that are easy to maintain and economical. Depending on the technology, floors are made solid or lattice. Most often, red brick laid on edge in a herringbone pattern, expanded clay concrete with cement or polymer coating, ceramic tiles.

Wooden floors, which are widespread in older buildings, are far from perfect and expensive. Asphalt floors are only used in cattle sheds, but they are not durable. Concrete floors are very cold and have a negative effect on the growth of hoof horns, so they are used only in passages and driveways. Often used in pigsties wooden flooring, and in a number of households electric floor heating is carried out using various technical means. In this case, safety precautions must be strictly observed.

In sheds, stalls of stables, in rooms for loose livestock and in buildings where poultry is on deep litter, adobe and clay-crushed stone floors are installed.

Slotted floors can be continuous or partial. Reinforced concrete, metal and plastic gratings are used for their construction. Belarus has mastered the production of reinforced concrete gratings coated with plates made from waste from the rubber industry.

Gates are built in such a way that animals can be quickly removed from the premises, taking into account the use of machines and mechanisms. External exits are equipped with vestibules that protect the premises from cooling. The most convenient gates are carriage type. In any case, the gate should only open outwards. Disinfection mats are installed at the gates.

Windows are placed taking into account uniform lighting of the building. To reduce heat loss, windows are made with double and even triple glazing. Keeping the glass clean, repairing it, painting the frames and periodically filling the cracks is a necessary requirement for window care.

Practice confirmed economic efficiency keeping poultry, fattening pigs and cattle in windowless buildings with automatically controlled artificial lighting.

The roof serves to protect premises and animals from precipitation, for insulation in winter and protection from overheating in summer. The materials used for roofs are slate, asbestos-cement slabs, roofing felt, roofing felt, etc. Regular roof repairs help maintain a normal microclimate in the room.

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